Recent comparative studies of student achievement have sparked global debates about how best to design effective policies that raise the overall quality of learning while reducing disparities among students. This report demonstrates a useful analytical tool, called the gradient, which represents the relationship between student learning outcomes and socioeconomic status. Using data from two recent international student assessments, this report explores ten key policy questions relevant to the educational performance of schools and schooling systems. It also shows how the gradient framework can be used to assess the likely effects of different policy interventions to reduce inequalities. This publication highlights some of the main obstacles and opportunities facing policymakers in efforts to improve the quality and equity of national education systems.